What is today known as Jammu and Kashmir—divided between India and Pakistan by the Line of Control—has, in much of historical literature, been referred to simply as Kashmir. A significant part of the historical record, particularly in ancient and medieval sources, centres on the Kashmir Valley. However, in its modern political form, Jammu and Kashmir represents a larger and more diverse geographical entity.

The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, established in 1846, comprised regions that today lie under the administration of India, Pakistan, and China. While India maintains a stated position on territories under Pakistan’s control, the areas under Chinese occupation remain part of the broader historical and territorial context of the region.

Kashmir occupies a distinctive place in the civilisational history of India. It is among the few regions with a continuous historical tradition that records its distant past. This tradition is most notably preserved in the Rajatarangini, composed in the 12th century by Kalhana, which remains one of the earliest historical chronicles in the Indian subcontinent. Other scholars, such as Bilhana, further attest to the region’s long-standing intellectual and literary heritage.

References to the broader region appear in early Indian texts. The Buddhist work Anguttara Nikaya (circa 600 BCE) lists sixteen major regions of the subcontinent, among which Kamboja is generally understood to have included parts of present-day north-western Pakistan and areas of Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, the Arthashastra, attributed to Chanakya (circa 3rd century BCE), situates these northern regions within a wider conception of political unity across the Indian subcontinent.

Ancient epics such as the Mahabharata also contain references to rivers and regions that correspond to present-day Jammu and Kashmir, including the Indus, Chenab, Sutlej, and Beas. These references place the region firmly within the broader geographical and cultural landscape of ancient India.

The cultural memory of Kashmir is further shaped by tradition and legend. The name “Kashmir” is often associated with the Sanskrit roots Ka (water) and Shimeera (to desiccate), reflecting the long-held belief that the valley emerged from a drained lake, attributed in legend to the sage Kashyapa. Early traditions also refer to Gonanda as among the earliest rulers of Kashmir, linking the region to the wider narrative traditions of ancient India.

While these accounts form part of the region’s early historical and cultural memory, more verifiable historical detail begins to emerge during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (273–232 BCE), marking the transition from legend to recorded history.

Buddhist and Hindu Phases (c. 250 BCE – 1339 CE)

The incorporation of Kashmir into the imperial framework of ancient India becomes clearer during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE). Tradition credits him with founding an early settlement at Srinagar and with facilitating the spread of Buddhism in the region. During this period, Kashmir emerged as an important centre of Buddhist learning and activity.

Following the Mauryas, the region came under the influence of the Kushans, whose empire extended across north-western India and into Central Asia. Under Kanishka, Buddhism continued to flourish. Historical accounts, including those of the 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang, refer to Kashmir as a significant centre of Buddhist scholarship, with traditions associating the region with the convening of a major Buddhist council.

At the same time, Brahmanical traditions remained deeply rooted in the region. From the 7th century CE onwards, political consolidation took place under indigenous dynasties. The Karkota dynasty, founded by Durlabhavardhana, marked a period of expansion and cultural development. Its most prominent ruler, Lalitaditya Muktapida, is associated with both territorial ambition and architectural patronage, including the construction of the Martand Sun Temple—one of the most significant surviving monuments of early Kashmir.

Subsequent centuries witnessed phases of political instability and transition. In the 9th century CE, the Utpala dynasty replaced the Karkotas. Under Avantivarman (r. 855–883 CE), Kashmir experienced administrative and economic recovery. His reign is particularly noted for public works and irrigation reforms led by his minister Suyya, whose efforts improved agricultural productivity and are reflected in place names such as Suyyapur (present-day Sopore). The town of Awantipora also derives its name from this period, recalling the ruler’s patronage of temple construction and urban development.

Across these centuries, Kashmir remained a space where Buddhist and Hindu traditions coexisted and evolved, contributing to a layered cultural and intellectual heritage. This phase laid the foundations of a structured polity and a vibrant civilisational life, preceding the major political transformations that would follow in the 14th century.

Shah Mir Dynasty and Successor Rule (1339–1586)

The early 14th century marked a significant political transition in Kashmir. Following a period of internal instability, the rule associated with the earlier Hindu dynasties came to an end. Kota Rani, who exercised authority in her own right during the reign of Udayanadeva, is widely regarded as the last ruler of that phase. Her death in 1339 paved the way for the establishment of Muslim rule under the Shah Mir dynasty.

Founded by Shah Mir, the new polity introduced a different political and cultural orientation while continuing to draw upon existing administrative traditions. Among its rulers, Sikandar Shah Miri (r. 1389–1413) and, more prominently, Zain-ul-Abidin (r. 1420–1470) stand out.

The reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, often referred to as Bud Shah (the Great King), is generally viewed as a period of relative stability and cultural growth. His administration is associated with patronage of arts, crafts, and learning, as well as efforts to maintain social balance within a changing religious landscape.

The spread of Islam in Kashmir during this period is linked not only to political change but also to the influence of Sufi traditions. Figures such as Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani and Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Noorani played an important role in shaping the region’s spiritual and cultural life, contributing to a syncretic ethos that would come to characterise Kashmiri society.

After the death of Zain-ul-Abidin in 1470, the Shah Mir dynasty gradually weakened. The latter half of the 16th century saw increasing political fragmentation and the rise of the Chak rulers, who replaced the Shah Mir line. During this period, external interest in Kashmir intensified. Mirza Haidar Dughlat briefly established control over Kashmir in 1540 during the reign of Humayun, though this rule was not sustained.

By the late 16th century, Kashmir had become a region of strategic and political interest to the Mughals. After earlier unsuccessful attempts, Emperor Akbar annexed Kashmir in 1586, bringing the region formally into the Mughal Empire and marking the end of independent Sultanate rule.

Throughout these centuries, Kashmir retained its long-standing reputation as a centre of learning. Earlier intellectual traditions, including those associated with scholars such as Abhinavagupta and Vasugupta, continued to influence the region’s cultural life. This continuity of scholarship and spiritual thought remained a defining feature of Kashmir even amid political change.

Mughal Rule (1586–1752)

The incorporation of Kashmir into the Mughal Empire in 1586 marked a decisive shift in its political history. Under Akbar, the region was brought within a larger imperial framework, linking it more closely with the administrative and cultural currents of northern India. This period is often seen as the beginning of Kashmir’s integration into a wider subcontinental polity.

Kashmir held a special place in the Mughal imagination. Jahangir, who ascended the throne in 1605, is particularly associated with the Valley. His memoirs reflect a deep personal attachment, and the Mughal period saw the development of gardens, architecture, and urban spaces that continue to shape Kashmir’s landscape. The reign of Shah Jahan (1628–1658) further consolidated imperial authority and patronage in the region.

Under Aurangzeb (1658–1707), however, the Mughal Empire began to show signs of strain. While Kashmir remained under imperial control, administrative effectiveness weakened over time, and local discontent grew. The later Mughal period was marked by declining central authority and increasing instability across the empire, which also affected governance in Kashmir.

By the early 18th century, the weakening of Mughal power became more pronounced. The invasion of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739 significantly undermined Mughal authority across northern India. This erosion of imperial control extended to Kashmir, where governance became increasingly fragile.

Amid this weakening, external attention to Kashmir intensified. Traditions also recall appeals made by sections of the Kashmiri population, including Kashmiri Pandits, to Guru Tegh Bahadur during this period, reflecting broader concerns about conditions in the Valley.

By 1752, Mughal authority in Kashmir had effectively collapsed, paving the way for Afghan rule and marking the end of nearly two centuries of Mughal presence in the region.

Afghans: 1752-1819

In 1752 when Ahmad Shah Abdali was returning home in Afghanistan after ravishing Delhi, he was invited by some Kashmiris to save them from the persecution of the local rulers. In 1757 Kashmir came under the control of Ahmed Shah Durrani, the Afghan who invaded India many times. In 1762, in alliance with the Dogra Rajput ruler, Raja Ranjit Dev of Jammu, the Afghans attached Kashmir. When the Afghan leader, Ahmed Shah Durrani, died in 1772, Jawan Sher the Afghan ruler of Kashmir, set himself up as an independent ruler. The Afghan reign lasted for a little over fifty years, but the period is generally remembered as one of the darkest of Kashmir history. Towards the end of this period. Through the assistance of the Sikhs and Ranjit Singh – a ruler in nominal alliance, the Afghan rule was overthrown.

Sikhs: 1819-1846

In 1819 Kashmir was annexed by Ranjit Singh and made a part of his Sikh empire. In the wake of the decline of the Afghan empire in northern Indian region, Ranjit Singh had shown himself both able and willing to fill the vacuum. In 1834, Ranjit Singh sent Colonel Mian Singh Kumedan, from Gujranwala as governor. Considered to be the best of all the Sikh governors, he attempted to bring the valley out of the economic chaos resulting from the 1833 famine. Ranjit Singh never visited the valley of Kashmir. Gulab Singh Dogra of Jammu was one of his most loyal Generals. In 1820 he gave him the title of Raja with some authority to raise his own force which marked the beginning of Dogra dynasty. When Ranjit Singh died, Gulab Singh had been his protégé for thirty years; aged forty-seven, he was well-placed to control events not only in the heart of the Sikh empire in Lahore but also in Kashmir. Until the death of Ranjit Singh, the East India Company had maintained cordial relations with the Sikhs; they in turn did not wish to upset the British. After his death, the relationship soon fell apart. The Anglo-Sikh war of 1846 marked an end of Sikh rule on Kashmir.